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NaturalNews.com printable article
Originally published March 6 2006


Human medical experimentation in the United States: The shocking true
history of modern medicine and psychiatry (1833-1965)
by Dani Veracity

Introduction by the Health Ranger: The United States claims to be the
world leader in medicine. But there's a dark side to western medicine
that few want to acknowledge: The horrifying medical experiments
performed on impoverished people and their children all in the name of
scientific progress. Many of these medical experiments were conducted
on people without their knowledge, and most were conducted as part of
an effort to seek profits from newly approved drugs or medical
technologies.
Today, the medical experiments continue on the U.S. population and its
children. From the mass drugging of children diagnosed with fictitious
behavioral disorders invented by psychiatry to the FDA's approval of
mass-marketed drugs that have undergone no legitimate clinical trials,
our population is right now being subjected to medical experiments on
a staggering scale. Today, nearly 50% of Americans are on a least one
prescription drug, and nearly 20% of schoolchildren are on mind-
altering amphetamines like Ritalin or antidepressants like Prozac.
This mass medication of our nation is, in every way, a grand medical
experiment taking place right now.

But to truly understand how this mass experimentation on modern
Americans came into being, you have to take a close look at the
horrifying history of conventional medicine's exploitation of people
for cruel medical experiments.

WARNING: What you are about to read is truly shocking. You have never
been told this information by the American Medical Association, nor
drug companies, nor the evening news. You were never taught the truth
about conventional medicine in public school, or even at any
university. This is the dark secret of the U.S. system of medicine,
and once you read the true accounts reported here, you may never trust
drug companies again. These images are deeply disturbing. We print
them here not as a form of entertainment, but as a stern warning
against what might happen to us and our children if we do not rein in
the horrifying, inhumane actions of Big Pharma and modern-day
psychiatry.

Now, I introduce this shocking timeline, researched and authored by
Dani Veracity, one of our many talented staff writers here at Truth
Publishing.

Read at your own risk. - The Health Ranger


The true U.S. history of human medical experimentation
Human experimentation -- that is, subjecting live human beings to
science experiments that are sometimes cruel, sometimes painful,
sometimes deadly and always a risk -- is a major part of U.S. history
that you won't find in most history or science books. The United
States is undoubtedly responsible for some of the most amazing
scientific breakthroughs. These advancements, especially in the field
of medicine, have changed the lives of billions of people around the
world -- sometimes for the better, as in the case of finding a cure
for malaria and other epidemic diseases, and sometimes for the worse
(consider modern "psychiatry" and the drugging of schoolchildren).
However, these breakthroughs come with a hefty price tag: The human
beings used in the experiments that made these advancements possible.
Over the last two centuries, some of these test subjects have been
compensated for the damage done to their emotional and physical
health, but most have not. Many have lost their lives because of the
experiments they often unwillingly and sometimes even unwittingly
participated in, and they of course can never be compensated for
losing their most precious possession of all: Their health.

As you read through these science experiments, you'll learn the
stories of newborns injected with radioactive substances, mentally ill
people placed in giant refrigerators, military personnel exposed to
chemical weapons by the very government they served and mentally
challenged children being purposely infected with hepatitis. These
stories are facts, not fiction: Each account, no matter how
horrifying, is backed up with a link or citation to a reputable
source.

These stories must be heard because human experimentation is still
going on today. The reasons behind the experiments may be different,
but the usual human guinea pigs are still the same -- members of
minority groups, the poor and the disadvantaged. These are the lives
that were put on the line in the name of "scientific" medicine.


(1833)
Dr. William Beaumont, an army surgeon physician, pioneers gastric
medicine with his study of a patient with a permanently open gunshot
wound to the abdomen and writes a human medical experimentation code
that asserts the importance of experimental treatments, but also lists
requirements stipulating that human subjects must give voluntary,
informed consent and be able to end the experiment when they want.
Beaumont's Code lists verbal, rather than just written, consent as
permissible (Berdon).
(1845)
(1845 - 1849) J. Marion Sims, later hailed as the "father of
gynecology," performs medical experiments on enslaved African women
without anesthesia. These women would usually die of infection soon
after surgery. Based on his belief that the movement of newborns'
skull bones during protracted births causes trismus, he also uses a
shoemaker's awl, a pointed tool shoemakers use to make holes in
leather, to practice moving the skull bones of babies born to enslaved
mothers (Brinker).
(1895)
New York pediatrician Henry Heiman infects a 4-year-old boy whom he
calls "an idiot with chronic epilepsy" with gonorrhea as part of a
medical experiment ("Human Experimentation: Before the Nazi Era and
After").
(1896)
Dr. Arthur Wentworth turns 29 children at Boston's Children's Hospital
into human guinea pigs when he performs spinal taps on them, just to
test whether the procedure is harmful (Sharav).
(1900)
U.S Army doctors working in the Philippines infect five Filipino
prisoners with plague and withhold proper nutrition to create Beriberi
in 29 prisoners; four test subjects die (Merritte, et al.; Cockburn
and St. Clair, eds.).
Under commission from the U.S. surgeon general, Dr. Walter Reed goes
to Cuba and uses 22 Spanish immigrant workers to prove that yellow
fever is contracted through mosquito bites. Doing so, he introduces
the practice of using healthy test subjects, and also the concept of a
written contract to confirm informed consent of these subjects. While
doing this study, Dr. Reed clearly tells the subjects that, though he
will do everything he can to help them, they may die as a result of
the experiment. He pays them $100 in gold for their participation,
plus $100 extra if they contract yellow fever (Berdon, Sharav).

(1906)
Harvard professor Dr. Richard Strong infects prisoners in the
Philippines with cholera to study the disease; 13 of them die. He
compensates survivors with cigars and cigarettes. During the Nuremberg
Trials, Nazi doctors cite this study to justify their own medical
experiments (Greger, Sharav).
(1911)
Dr. Hideyo Noguchi of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research
publishes data on injecting an inactive syphilis preparation into the
skin of 146 hospital patients and normal children in an attempt to
develop a skin test for syphilis. Later, in 1913, several of these
children's parents sue Dr. Noguchi for allegedly infecting their
children with syphilis ("Reviews and Notes: History of Medicine:
Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America before the
Second World War").
(1913)
Medical experimenters "test" 15 children at the children's home St.
Vincent's House in Philadelphia with tuberculin, resulting in
permanent blindness in some of the children. Though the Pennsylvania
House of Representatives records the incident, the researchers are not
punished for the experiments ("Human Experimentation: Before the Nazi
Era and After").
(1915)
Dr. Joseph Goldberger, under order of the U.S. Public Health Office,
produces Pellagra, a debilitating disease that affects the central
nervous system, in 12 Mississippi inmates to try to find a cure for
the disease. One test subject later says that he had been through "a
thousand hells." In 1935, after millions die from the disease, the
director of the U.S Public Health Office would finally admit that
officials had known that it was caused by a niacin deficiency for some
time, but did nothing about it because it mostly affected poor African-
Americans. During the Nuremberg Trials, Nazi doctors used this study
to try to justify their medical experiments on concentration camp
inmates (Greger; Cockburn and St. Clair, eds.).
(1918)
In response to the Germans' use of chemical weapons during World War
I, President Wilson creates the Chemical Warfare Service (CWS) as a
branch of the U.S. Army. Twenty-four years later, in 1942, the CWS
would begin performing mustard gas and lewisite experiments on over
4,000 members of the armed forces (Global Security, Goliszek).
(1919)
(1919 - 1922) Researchers perform testicular transplant experiments on
inmates at San Quentin State Prison in California, inserting the
testicles of recently executed inmates and goats into the abdomens and
scrotums of living prisoners (Greger).
(1931)
Cornelius Rhoads, a pathologist from the Rockefeller Institute for
Medical Research, purposely infects human test subjects in Puerto Rico
with cancer cells; 13 of them die. Though a Puerto Rican doctor later
discovers that Rhoads purposely covered up some of details of his
experiment and Rhoads himself gives a written testimony stating he
believes that all Puerto Ricans should be killed, he later goes on to
establish the U.S. Army Biological Warfare facilities in Maryland,
Utah and Panama, and is named to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,
where he begins a series of radiation exposure experiments on American
soldiers and civilian hospital patients (Sharav; Cockburn and St.
Clair, eds.).
(1931 - 1933) Mental patients at Elgin State Hospital in Illinois are
injected with radium-266 as an experimental therapy for mental illness
(Goliszek).

(1932)
(1932-1972) The U.S. Public Health Service in Tuskegee, Ala. diagnoses
400 poor, black sharecroppers with syphilis but never tells them of
their illness nor treats them; instead researchers use the men as
human guinea pigs to follow the symptoms and progression of the
disease. They all eventually die from syphilis and their families are
never told that they could have been treated (Goliszek, University of
Virginia Health System Health Sciences Library).
(1937)
Scientists at Cornell University Medical School publish an angina drug
study that uses both placebo and blind assessment techniques on human
test subjects. They discover that the subjects given the placebo
experienced more of an improvement in symptoms than those who were
given the actual drug. This is first account of the placebo effect
published in the United States ("Placebo Effect").
(1939)
In order to test his theory on the roots of stuttering, prominent
speech pathologist Dr. Wendell Johnson performs his famous "Monster
Experiment" on 22 children at the Iowa Soldiers' Orphans' Home in
Davenport. Dr. Johnson and his graduate students put the children
under intense psychological pressure, causing them to switch from
speaking normally to stuttering heavily. At the time, some of the
students reportedly warn Dr. Johnson that, "in the aftermath of World
War II, observers might draw comparisons to Nazi experiments on human
subjects, which could destroy his career" (Alliance for Human Research
Protection).
(1941)
Dr. William C. Black infects a 12-month-old baby with herpes as part
of a medical experiment. At the time, the editor of the Journal of
Experimental Medicine, Francis Payton Rous, calls it "an abuse of
power, an infringement of the rights of an individual, and not
excusable because the illness which followed had implications for
science" (Sharav).
An article in a 1941 issue of Archives of Pediatrics describes medical
studies of the severe gum disease Vincent's angina in which doctors
transmit the disease from sick children to healthy children with oral
swabs (Goliszek).

Drs. Francis and Salk and other researchers at the University of
Michigan spray large amounts of wild influenza virus directly into the
nasal passages of "volunteers" from mental institutions in Michigan.
The test subjects develop influenza within a very short period of time
(Meiklejohn).

Researchers give 800 poverty-stricken pregnant women at a Vanderbilt
University prenatal clinic "cocktails" including radioactive iron in
order to determine the iron requirements of pregnant women
(Pacchioli).

(1942)
The United States creates Fort Detrick, a 92-acre facility, employing
nearly 500 scientists working to create biological weapons and develop
defensive measures against them. Fort Detrick's main objectives
include investigating whether diseases are transmitted by inhalation,
digestion or through skin absorption; of course, these biological
warfare experiments heavily relied on the use of human subjects
(Goliszek).
U.S. Army and Navy doctors infect 400 prison inmates in Chicago with
malaria to study the disease and hopefully develop a treatment for it.
The prisoners are told that they are helping the war effort, but not
that they are going to be infected with malaria. During Nuremberg
Trials, Nazi doctors later cite this American study to defend their
own medical experiments in concentration camps like Auschwitz
(Cockburn and St. Clair, eds.).

The Chemical Warfare Service begins mustard gas and lewisite
experiments on 4,000 members of the U.S. military. Some test subjects
don't realize they are volunteering for chemical exposure experiments,
like 17-year-old Nathan Schnurman, who in 1944 thinks he is only
volunteering to test "U.S. Navy summer clothes" (Goliszek).

In an experiment sponsored by the U.S. Navy, Harvard biochemist Edward
Cohn injects 64 inmates of Massachusetts state prisons with cow's
blood (Sharav).

Merck Pharmaceuticals President George Merck is named director of the
War Research Service (WRS), an agency designed to oversee the
establishment of a biological warfare program (Goliszek).

(1943)
In order to "study the effect of frigid temperature on mental
disorders," researchers at University of Cincinnati Hospital keep 16
mentally disabled patients in refrigerated cabinets for 120 hours at
30 degrees Fahrenheit (Sharav).
(1944)
As part of the Manhattan Project that would eventually create the
atomic bomb, researchers inject 4.7 micrograms of plutonium into
soldiers at the Oak Ridge facility, 20 miles west of Knoxville, Tenn.
("Manhattan Project: Oak Ridge").
Captain A. W. Frisch, an experienced microbiologist, begins
experiments on four volunteers from the state prison at Dearborn,
Mich., inoculating prisoners with hepatitis-infected specimens
obtained in North Africa. One prisoner dies; two others develop
hepatitis but live; the fourth develops symptoms but does not actually
develop the disease (Meiklejohn).

Laboratory workers at the University of Minnesota and University of
Chicago inject human test subjects with phosphorus-32 to learn the
metabolism of hemoglobin (Goliszek).

(1944 - 1946) In order to quickly develop a cure for malaria -- a
disease hindering Allied success in World War II -- University of
Chicago Medical School professor Dr. Alf Alving infects psychotic
patients at Illinois State Hospital with the disease through blood
transfusions and then experiments malaria cures on them (Sharav).

A captain in the medical corps addresses an April 1944 memo to Col.
Stanford Warren, head of the Manhattan Project's Medical Section,
expressing his concerns about atom bomb component fluoride's central
nervous system (CNS) effects and asking for animal research to be done
to determine the extent of these effects: "Clinical evidence suggests
that uranium hexafluoride may have a rather marked central nervous
system effect ... It seems most likely that the F [code for fluoride]
component rather than the T [code for uranium] is the causative
factor ... Since work with these compounds is essential, it will be
necessary to know in advance what mental effects may occur after
exposure." The following year, the Manhattan Project would begin human-
based studies on fluoride's effects (Griffiths and Bryson).

The Manhattan Project medical team, led by the now infamous University
of Rochester radiologist Col. Safford Warren, injects plutonium into
patients at the University's teaching hospital, Strong Memorial
(Burton Report).

(1945)
Continuing the Manhattan Project, researchers inject plutonium into
three patients at the University of Chicago's Billings Hospital
(Sharav).
The U.S. State Department, Army intelligence and the CIA begin
Operation Paperclip, offering Nazi scientists immunity and secret
identities in exchange for work on top-secret government projects on
aerodynamics and chemical warfare medicine in the United States
("Project Paperclip").

Researchers infect 800 prisoners in Atlanta with malaria to study the
disease (Sharav).

(1945 - 1955) In Newburgh, N.Y., researchers linked to the Manhattan
Project begin the most extensive American study ever done on the
health effects of fluoridating public drinking water (Griffiths and
Bryson).

(1946)
Gen. Douglas MacArthur strikes a secret deal with Japanese physician
Dr. Shiro Ishii to turn over 10,000 pages of information gathered from
human experimentation in exchange for granting Ishii immunity from
prosecution for the horrific experiments he performed on Chinese,
Russian and American war prisoners, including performing vivisections
on live human beings (Goliszek, Sharav).
Male and female test subjects at Chicago's Argonne National
Laboratories are given intravenous injections of arsenic-76 so that
researchers can study how the human body absorbs, distributes and
excretes arsenic (Goliszek).

Continuing the Newburg study of 1945, the Manhattan Project
commissions the University of Rochester to study fluoride's effects on
animals and humans in a project codenamed "Program F." With the help
of the New York State Health Department, Program F researchers
secretly collect and analyze blood and tissue samples from Newburg
residents. The studies are sponsored by the Atomic Energy Commission
and take place at the University of Rochester Medical Center's Strong
Memorial Hospital (Griffiths and Bryson).

(1946 - 1947) University of Rochester researchers inject four male and
two female human test subjects with uranium-234 and uranium-235 in
dosages ranging from 6.4 to 70.7 micrograms per one kilogram of body
weight in order to study how much uranium they could tolerate before
their kidneys become damaged (Goliszek).

Six male employees of a Chicago metallurgical laboratory are given
water contaminated with plutonium-239 to drink so that researchers can
learn how plutonium is absorbed into the digestive tract (Goliszek).

Researchers begin using patients in VA hospitals as test subjects for
human medical experiments, cleverly worded as "investigations" or
"observations" in medical study reports to avoid negative connotations
and bad publicity (Sharav).

The American public finally learns of the biowarfare experiments being
done at Fort Detrick from a report released by the War Department
(Goliszek).

(1946 - 1953) The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission sponsors studies in
which researchers from Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General
Hospital and the Boston University School of Medicine feed mentally
disabled students at Fernald State School Quaker Oats breakfast cereal
spiked with radioactive tracers every morning so that nutritionists
can study how preservatives move through the human body and if they
block the absorption of vitamins and minerals. Later, MIT researchers
conduct the same study at Wrentham State School (Sharav, Goliszek).

Human test subjects are given one to four injections of arsenic-76 at
the University of Chicago Department of Medicine. Researchers take
tissue biopsies from the subjects before and after the injections
(Goliszek).

(1947)
Col. E.E. Kirkpatrick of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)
issues a top-secret document (707075) dated Jan. 8. In it, he writes
that "certain radioactive substances are being prepared for
intravenous administration to human subjects as a part of the work of
the contract" (Goliszek).
A secret AEC document dated April 17 reads, "It is desired that no
document be released which refers to experiments with humans that
might have an adverse reaction on public opinion or result in legal
suits," revealing that the U.S. government was aware of the health
risks its nuclear tests posed to military personnel conducting the
tests or nearby civilians (Goliszek).

The CIA begins studying LSD's potential as a weapon by using military
and civilian test subjects for experiments without their consent or
even knowledge. Eventually, these LSD studies will evolve into the
MKULTRA program in 1953 (Sharav).

(1947 - 1953) The U.S. Navy begins Project Chatter to identify and
test so-called "truth serums," such as those used by the Soviet Union
to interrogate spies. Mescaline and the central nervous system
depressant scopolamine are among the many drugs tested on human
subjects (Goliszek).

(1948)
Based on the secret studies performed on Newburgh, N.Y. residents
beginning in 1945, Project F researchers publish a report in the
August 1948 edition of the Journal of the American Dental Association,
detailing fluoride's health dangers. The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission
(AEC) quickly censors it for "national security" reasons (Griffiths
and Bryson).
(1950)
(1950 - 1953) The CIA and later the Office of Scientific Intelligence
begin Project Bluebird (renamed Project Artichoke in 1951) in order to
find ways to "extract" information from CIA agents, control
individuals "through special interrogation techniques," "enhance
memory" and use "unconventional techniques, including hypnosis and
drugs" for offensive measures (Goliszek).
(1950 - 1953) The U.S. Army releases chemical clouds over six American
and Canadian cities. Residents in Winnipeg, Canada, where a highly
toxic chemical called cadmium is dropped, subsequently experience high
rates of respiratory illnesses (Cockburn and St. Clair, eds.).

In order to determine how susceptible an American city could be to
biological attack, the U.S. Navy sprays a cloud of Bacillus globigii
bacteria from ships over the San Francisco shoreline. According to
monitoring devices situated throughout the city to test the extent of
infection, the eight thousand residents of San Francisco inhale five
thousand or more bacteria particles, many becoming sick with pneumonia-
like symptoms (Goliszek).

Dr. Joseph Strokes of the University of Pennsylvania infects 200
female prisoners with viral hepatitis to study the disease (Sharav).

Doctors at the Cleveland City Hospital study changes in cerebral blood
flow by injecting test subjects with spinal anesthesia, inserting
needles in their jugular veins and brachial arteries, tilting their
heads down and, after massive blood loss causes paralysis and
fainting, measuring their blood pressure. They often perform this
experiment multiple times on the same subject (Goliszek).

Dr. D. Ewen Cameron, later of MKULTRA infamy due to his 1957 to1964
experiments on Canadians, publishes an article in the British Journal
of Physical Medicine, in which he describes experiments that entail
forcing schizophrenic patients at Manitoba's Brandon Mental Hospital
to lie naked under 15- to 200-watt red lamps for up to eight hours per
day. His other experiments include placing mental patients in an
electric cage that overheats their internal body temperatures to 103
degrees Fahrenheit, and inducing comas by giving patients large
injections of insulin (Goliszek).

(1951)
The U.S. Navy's Project Bluebird is renamed Project Artichoke and
begins human medical experiments that test the effectiveness of LSD,
sodium pentothal and hypnosis for the interrogative purposes described
in Project Bluebird's objectives (1950) (Goliszek).
The U.S. Army secretly contaminates the Norfolk Naval Supply Center in
Virginia and Washington, D.C.'s National Airport with a strain of
bacteria chosen because African-Americans were believed to be more
susceptible to it than Caucasians. The experiment causes food
poisoning, respiratory problems and blood poisoning (Cockburn and St.
Clair, eds.).

(1951 - 1952) Researchers withhold insulin from diabetic patients for
up to two days in order to observe the effects of diabetes; some test
subjects go into diabetic comas (Goliszek).

(1951 - 1956) Under contract with the Air Force's School of Aviation
Medicine (SAM), the University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center in
Houston begins studying the effects of radiation on cancer patients --
many of them members of minority groups or indigents, according to
sources -- in order to determine both radiation's ability to treat
cancer and the possible long-term radiation effects of pilots flying
nuclear-powered planes. The study lasts until 1956, involving 263
cancer patients. Beginning in 1953, the subjects are required to sign
a waiver form, but it still does not meet the informed consent
guidelines established by the Wilson memo released that year. The TBI
studies themselves would continue at four different institutions --
Baylor University College of Medicine, Memorial Sloan-Kettering
Institute for Cancer Research, the U.S. Naval Hospital in Bethesda and
the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine -- until 1971 (U.S.
Department of Energy, Goliszek).

American, Canadian and British military and intelligence officials
gather a small group of eminent psychologists to a secret meeting at
the Ritz-Carlton Hotel in Montreal about Communist "thought-control
techniques." They proposed a top-secret research program on behavior
modification -- involving testing drugs, hypnosis, electroshock and
lobotomies on humans (Barker).

(1952)
Military scientists use the Dugway Proving Ground -- which is located
87 miles southwest of Salt Lake City, Utah -- in a series of
experiments to determine how Brucella suis and Brucella melitensis
spread in human populations. Today, over a half-century later, some
experts claim that we are all infected with these agents as a result
of these experiments (Goliszek).
In a U.S. Department of Denfense-sponsored experiment, Henry Blauer
dies after he is injected with mescaline at Columbia University's New
York State Psychiatric Institute (Sharav).

At the famous Sloan-Kettering Institute, Chester M. Southam injects
live cancer cells into prisoners at the Ohio State Prison to study the
progression of the disease. Half of the prisoners in this National
Institutes of Health-sponsored (NIH) study are black, awakening racial
suspicions stemming from Tuskegee, which was also an NIH-sponsored
study (Merritte, et al.).

(1953)
(1953 - 1970) The CIA begins project MKNAOMI to "stockpile
incapacitating and lethal materials, to develop gadgetry for the
disseminations of these materials, and to test the effects of certain
drugs on animals and humans." As part of MKNAOMI, the CIA and the
Special Operations Division of the Army Biological Laboratory at Fort
Detrick try to develop two suicide pill alternatives to the standard
cyanide suicide pill given to CIA agents and U-2 pilots. CIA agents
and U-2 pilots are meant to take these pills when they find themselves
in situations in which they (and all the information they hold in
their brains) are in enemy hands. They also develop a
"microbioinoculator" -- a device that agents can use to fire small
darts coated with biological agents that can remain potent for weeks
or even months. These darts can be fired through clothing and, most
significantly, are undetectable during autopsy. Eventually, by the
late 1960s, MKNAOMI enables the CIA to have a stockpile of biological
toxins -- infectious viruses, paralytic shellfish toxin, lethal
botulism toxin, snake venom and the severe skin disease-producing
agent Mircosporum gypseum. Of course, the development of all of this
"gadgetry" requires human experimentation (Goliszek).
(1953 - 1974) CIA Director Allen Dulles authorizes the MKULTRA program
to produce and test drugs and biological agents that the CIA could use
for mind control and behavior modification. MKULTRA later becomes well
known for its pioneering studies on LSD, which are often performed on
prisoners or patrons of brothels set up and run by the CIA. The
brothel experiments, known as "Operation Midnight Climax," feature two-
way mirrors set up in the brothels so that CIA agents can observe
LSD's effects on sexual behavior. Ironically, governmental figures
sometimes slip LSD into each other's drinks as part of the program,
resulting in the LSD psychosis-induced suicide of Dr. Frank Olson
indirectly at the hands of MKULTRA's infamous key player Dr. Sidney
Gottlieb. Of all the hundreds of human test subjects used during
MKULTRA, only 14 are ever notified of the involvement and only one is
ever compensated ($15,000). Most of the MKULTRA files are eventually
destroyed in 1973 (Elliston; Merritte, et al.; Barker).

The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) sponsors iodine studies at the
University of Iowa. In the first study, researchers give pregnant
women 100 to 200 microcuries of iodine-131 and then study the women's
aborted embryos in order to learn at what stage and to what extent
radioactive iodine crosses the placental barrier. In the second study,
researchers give 12 male and 13 female newborns under 36 hours old and
weighing between 5.5 and 8.5 pounds iodine-131 either orally or via
intramuscular injection, later measuring the concentration of iodine
in the newborns' thyroid glands (Goliszek).

Secretary of Defense Charles Wilson issues the Wilson memo, a top-
secret document establishing the Nuremberg Code as Department of
Defense policy on human experimentation. The Wilson memo requires
voluntary, written consent from a human medical research subject after
he or she has been informed of "the nature, duration, and purpose of
the experiment; the method and means by which it is to be conducted;
all inconveniences and hazards reasonably to be expected; and effects
upon his health or person which may possibly come from his
participation in the experiment." It also insists that doctors only
use experimental treatments when other methods have failed (Berdon).

As part of an AEC study, researchers feed 28 healthy infants at the
University of Nebraska College of Medicine iodine-131 through a
gastric tube and then test concentration of iodine in the infants'
thyroid glands 24 hours later (Goliszek).

(1953 - 1957) Eleven patients at Massachusetts General Hospital in
Boston are injected with uranium as part of the Manhattan Project
(Sharav).

In an AEC-sponsored study at the University of Tennessee, researchers
inject healthy two- to three-day-old newborns with approximately 60
rads of iodine-131 (Goliszek).

Newborn Daniel Burton becomes blind when physicians at Brooklyn
Doctors Hospital perform an experimental high oxygen treatment for
Retrolental Fibroplasia, a retinal disorder affecting premature
infants, on him and other premature babies. The physicians perform the
experimental treatment despite earlier studies showing that high
oxygen levels cause blindness. Testimony in Burton v. Brooklyn Doctors
Hospital (452 N.Y.S.2d875) later reveals that researchers continued to
give Burton and other infants excess oxygen even after their eyes had
swelled to dangerous levels (Goliszek, Sharav).

The CIA begins Project MKDELTA to study the use of biochemicals "for
harassment, discrediting and disabling purposes" (Goliszek).

A 1953 article in Clinical Science describes a medical experiment in
which researchers purposely blister the abdomens of 41 children,
ranging in age from eight to 14, with cantharide in order to study how
severely the substance irritates the skin (Goliszek).

The AEC performs a series of field tests known as "Green Run,"
dropping radiodine 131 and xenon 133 over the Hanford, Wash. site --
500,000 acres encompassing three small towns (Hanford, White Bluffs
and Richland) along the Columbia River (Sharav).

In an AEC-sponsored study to learn whether radioactive iodine affects
premature babies differently from full-term babies, researchers at
Harper Hospital in Detroit give oral doses of iodine-131 to 65
premature and full-term infants weighing between 2.1 and 5.5 pounds
(Goliszek).

(1954)
The CIA begins Project QKHILLTOP to study Chinese Communist Party
brainwashing techniques and use them to further the CIA's own
interrogative methods. Most experts speculate that the Cornell
University Medical School Human Ecology Studies Program conducted
Project QKHILLTOP's early experiments (Goliszek).
(1954 - 1975) U.S. Air Force medical officers assigned to Fort
Detrick's Chemical Corps Biological Laboratory begin Operation
Whitecoat -- experiments involving exposing human test subjects to
hepatitis A, plague, yellow fever, Venezuelan equine encephalitis,
Rift Valley fever, rickettsia and intestinal microbes. These test
subjects include 2,300 Seventh Day Adventist military personnel, who
choose to become human guinea pigs rather than potentially kill others
in combat. Only two of the 2,300 claim long-term medical complications
from participating in the study ("Operation Whitecoat".)

In a general memo to university researchers under contract with the
military, the Surgeon General of the U.S. Army asserts the human
experimentation guidelines -- including informed, written consent --
established in the classified Wilson memo (Goliszek).

(1955)
In U.S. Army-sponsored experiments performed at Tulane University,
mental patients are given LSD and other drugs and then have electrodes
implanted in their brain to measure the levels (Barker, "The Cold War
Experiments").
(1955 - 1957) In order to learn how cold weather affects human
physiology, researchers give a total of 200 doses of iodine-131, a
radioactive tracer that concentrates almost immediately in the thyroid
gland, to 85 healthy Eskimos and 17 Athapascan Indians living in
Alaska. They study the tracer within the body by blood, thyroid
tissue, urine and saliva samples from the test subjects. Due to the
language barrier, no one tells the test subjects what is being done to
them, so there is no informed consent (Goliszek).

(1955 - 1965) As a result of their work with the CIA's mind control
experiments in Project QKHILLTOP, Cornell neurologists Harold Wolff
and Lawrence Hinkle begin the Society for the Investigation of Human
Ecology (later renamed the Human Ecology Fund) to study "man's
relation to his social environment as perceived by him" (Goliszek).

(1956)
(1956 - 1957) U.S. Army covert biological weapons researchers release
mosquitoes infected with yellow fever and dengue fever over Savannah,
Ga., and Avon Park, Fla., to test the insects' ability to carry
disease. After each test, Army agents pose as public health officials
to test victims for effects and take pictures of the unwitting test
subjects. These experiments result in a high incidence of fevers,
respiratory distress, stillbirths, encephalitis and typhoid among the
two cities' residents, as well as several deaths (Cockburn and St.
Clair, eds.).
(1957)
The U.S. military conducts Operation Plumbbob at the Nevada Test Site,
65 miles northwest of Las Vegas. Operation Pumbbob consists of 29
nuclear detonations, eventually creating radiation expected to result
in a total 32,000 cases of thyroid cancer among civilians in the area.
Around 18,000 members of the U.S. military participate in Operation
Pumbbob's Desert Rock VII and VIII, which are designed to see how the
average foot soldier physiologically and mentally responds to a
nuclear battlefield ("Operation Plumbbob", Goliszek).
(1957 - 1964) As part of MKULTRA, the CIA pays McGill University
Department of Psychiatry founder Dr. D. Ewen Cameron $69,000 to
perform LSD studies and potentially lethal experiments on Canadians
being treated for minor disorders like post-partum depression and
anxiety at the Allan Memorial Institute, which houses the Psychiatry
Department of the Royal Victoria Hospital in Montreal. The CIA
encourages Dr. Cameron to fully explore his "psychic driving" concept
of correcting madness through completely erasing one's memory and
rewriting the psyche. These "driving" experiments involve putting
human test subjects into drug-, electroshock- and sensory deprivation-
induced vegetative states for up to three months, and then playing
tape loops of noise or simple repetitive statements for weeks or
months in order to "rewrite" the "erased" psyche. Dr. Cameron also
gives human test subjects paralytic drugs and electroconvulsive
therapy 30 to 40 times, as part of his experiments. Most of Dr.
Cameron's test subjects suffer permanent damage as a result of his
work (Goliszek, "Donald Ewan Cameron").

In order to study how blood flows through children's brains,
researchers at Children's Hospital in Philadelphia perform the
following experiment on healthy children, ranging in age from three to
11: They insert needles into each child's femoral artery (thigh) and
jugular vein (neck), bringing the blood down from the brain. Then,
they force each child to inhale a special gas through a facemask. In
their subsequent Journal of Clinical Investigation article on this
study, the researchers note that, in order to perform the experiment,
they had to restrain some of the child test subjects by bandaging them
to boards (Goliszek).

(1958)
Approximately 300 members of the U.S. Navy are exposed to radiation
when the Navy destroyer Mansfield detonates 30 nuclear bombs off the
coasts of Pacific Islands during Operation Hardtack (Goliszek).
The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) drops radioactive materials
over Point Hope, Alaska, home to the Inupiats, in a field test known
under the codename "Project Chariot" (Sharav).

(1961)
In response to the Nuremberg Trials, Yale psychologist Stanley Milgram
begins his famous Obedience to Authority Study in order to answer his
question "Could it be that (Adolf) Eichmann and his million
accomplices in the Holocaust were just following orders? Could we call
them all accomplices?" Male test subjects, ranging in age from 20 to
40 and coming from all education backgrounds, are told to give
"learners" electric shocks for every wrong answer the learners give in
response to word pair questions. In reality, the learners are actors
and are not receiving electric shocks, but what matters is that the
test subjects do not know that. Astoundingly, they keep on following
orders and continue to administer increasingly high levels of
"shocks," even after the actor learners show obvious physical pain
("Milgram Experiment").
(1962)
Researchers at the Laurel Children's Center in Maryland test
experimental acne antibiotics on children and continue their tests
even after half of the young test subjects develop severe liver damage
because of the experimental medication (Goliszek). The U.S. Army's
Deseret Test Center begins Project 112. This includes SHAD (Shipboard
Hazard and Defense), which exposes U.S. Navy and Army personnel to
live toxins and chemical poisons in order to determine naval ships'
vulnerability to chemical and biological weapons. Military personnel
are not test subjects; conducting the tests exposes them. Many of
these participants complain of negative health effects at the time
and, decades later, suffer from severe medical problems as a result of
their exposure (Goliszek, Veterans Health Administration).
The FDA begins requiring that a new pharmaceutical undergo three human
clinical trials before it will approve it. From 1962 to 1980,
pharmaceutical companies satisfy this requirement by running Phase I
trials, which determine a drug's toxicity, on prison inmates, giving
them small amounts of cash for compensation (Sharav).

(1963)
Chester M. Southam, who injected Ohio State Prison inmates with live
cancer cells in 1952, performs the same procedure on 22 senile,
African-American female patients at the Brooklyn Jewish Chronic
Disease Hospital in order to watch their immunological response.
Southam tells the patients that they are receiving "some cells," but
leaves out the fact that they are cancer cells. He claims he doesn't
obtain informed consent from the patients because he does not want to
frighten them by telling them what he is doing, but he nevertheless
temporarily loses his medical license because of it. Ironically, he
eventually becomes president of the American Cancer Society (Greger,
Merritte, et al.).
Researchers at the University of Washington directly irradiate the
testes of 232 prison inmates in order to determine radiation's effects
on testicular function. When these inmates later leave prison and have
children, at least four have babies born with birth defects. The exact
number is unknown because researchers never follow up on the men to
see the long-term effects of their experiment (Goliszek).

In a National Institutes of Health-sponsored (NIH) study, a researcher
transplants a chimpanzee's kidney into a human. The experiment fails
(Sharav).

(1963 - 1966) New York University researcher Saul Krugman promises
parents with mentally disabled children definite enrollment into the
Willowbrook State School in Staten Island, N.Y., a resident mental
institution for mentally retarded children, in exchange for their
signatures on a consent form for procedures presented as
"vaccinations." In reality, the procedures involve deliberately
infecting children with viral hepatitis by feeding them an extract
made from the feces of infected patients, so that Krugman can study
the course of viral hepatitis as well the effectiveness of a hepatitis
vaccine (Hammer Breslow).

(1963 - 1971) Leading endocrinologist Dr. Carl Heller gives 67 prison
inmates at Oregon State Prison in Salem $5 per month and $25 per
testicular tissue biopsy in compensation for allowing him to perform
irradiation experiments on their testes. If they receive vasectomies
at the end of the study, the prisoners are given an extra $100
(Sharav, Goliszek).

Researchers inject a genetic compound called radioactive thymidine
into the testicles of more than 100 Oregon State Penitentiary inmates
to learn whether sperm production is affected by exposure to steroid
hormones (Greger).

In a study published in Pediatrics, researchers at the University of
California's Department of Pediatrics use 113 newborns ranging in age
from one hour to three days old in a series of experiments used to
study changes in blood pressure and blood flow. In one study, doctors
insert a catheter through the newborns' umbilical arteries and into
their aortas and then immerse the newborns' feet in ice water while
recording aortic pressure. In another experiment, doctors strap 50
newborns to a circumcision board, tilt the table so that all the blood
rushes to their heads and then measure their blood pressure
(Goliszek).

(1964)
(1964 - 1968) The U.S. Army pays $386,486 (the largest sum ever paid
for human experimentation) to University of Pennsylvania Professors
Albert Kligman and Herbert W. Copelan to run medical experiments on
320 inmates of Holmesburg Prison to determine the effectiveness of
seven mind-altering drugs. The researchers' objective is to determine
the minimum effective dose of each drug needed to disable 50 percent
of any given population (MED-50). Though Professors Kligman and
Copelan claim that they are unaware of any long-term effects the mind-
altering agents might have on prisoners, documents revealed later
would prove otherwise (Kaye).
(1964 - 1967) The Dow Chemical Company pays Professor Kligman $10,000
to learn how dioxin -- a highly toxic, carcinogenic component of Agent
Orange -- and other herbicides affect human skin because workers at
the chemical plant have been developing an acne-like condition called
Chloracne and the company would like to know whether the chemicals
they are handling are to blame. As part of the study, Professor
Kligman applies roughly the amount of dioxin Dow employees are exposed
to on the skin 60 prisoners, and is disappointed when the prisoners
show no symptoms of Chloracne. In 1980 and 1981, the human guinea pigs
used in this study would begin suing Professor Kligman for
complications including lupus and psychological damage (Kaye).

(1965)
The Department of Defense uses human test subjects wearing rubber
clothing and M9A1 masks to conduct 35 trials near Fort Greely, Ala.,
as part of the Elk Hunt tests, which are designed to measure the
amount of VX nerve agent put on the clothing of people moving through
VX-contaminated areas or touching contaminated vehicles, and the
amount of VX vapor rising from these areas. After the tests, the
subjects are decontaminated using wet steam and high-pressure cold
water (Goliszek).
As part of a test codenamed "Big Tom," the Department of Defense
sprays Oahu, Hawaii's most heavily populated island, with Bacillus
globigii in order to simulate an attack on an island complex. Bacillus
globigii causes infections in people with weakened immune systems, but
this was not known to scientists at the time (Goliszek, Martin).

Continue with part two.






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